1. What spelling tells us about the orthographic development and word study instruction with emergent bilingual secondary students (Kiernan & Bear, 2018).
o This descriptive study uses qualitative and quantitative data to support a linear model perspective on the spelling developmental trajectory of emerging English speakers. Four of the five spelling stages developed by Charles Read (1971) are used to organize orthographic errors made by the participants on standardized tests (e.g., Elementary Spelling Inventory by Bear and colleagues and the English Language Proficiency Assessment by CTB-McGraw Hill).
o Participants were 199 mostly emerging English speakers, in grades 7-12, from one large school district. Quantitative (i.e. standardized testing results) were used from all participants and 89 students were selected for qualitative analyses on the linguistic features of spelling errors.
o Findings discussed parallels between Spanish-English and monolingual English speakers. Ultimately, this article supports relatively similar developmental trajectories along the spelling stages and recommended several strategies for explicitly teaching English spelling conventions to emerging English speakers. Recommendations included tailoring strategies to the student’s spelling stage. For example, a student in the letter name stage would benefit from strategies focused on the alphabetic layer of English and Spanish. Students in the within word spelling stage would benefit from strategies focused on conventional word spelling. Students in the syllables and affixes spelling stage would benefit from strategies focused on consonant doubling, open and closed syllables, and inflectional morphemes. Students in the derivational relations spelling stage would benefit from strategies focused on deciphering domain-specific vocabulary with roots and bases.
o Limitations include psychometric considerations typically found with standardized testing (i.e. mismatch of norming sample, repeated use concerns). Additionally, this article uses a linear model for analysis of spelling that is based on English proficiency and monolingual English development (i.e. arguably inappropriate for Spanish-English speakers as English spelling develops through a vowel-based perspective while Spanish spelling develops through a consonant-based perspective). Of note, missing participant information (i.e. current speech, language, and cognitive performance) in conjunction with age and grade equivalent score comparisons of participant performance warrant caution in the application of a linear model on spelling development. Strengths include large effect sizes for spelling performance during the one year of testing and recommendations to support the development of English spelling organized by spelling stage performance.
2. Bilingual spelling patterns in middle school: It is more than transfer (Bahr, Silliman, Danzak, & Wilkinson, 2015).
o This descriptive study uses a nonlinear paradigm (i.e. triple word form theory) to analyze the interactions of spelling sources of knowledge (i.e. phonological, orthographic, and morphological) in writing samples produced by bilingual students.
o 20 middle school participants who spoke Spanish as their native language provided 120 writing samples, including expository and narrative texts. Participants were not diagnosed with speech, language, or cognitive impairments. Samples were analyzed with the POMAS-S, the Spanish version of the phonological-orthographic-morphological analysis of spelling. Analyses of spelling error patterns were compared across English and Spanish.
o Morphological errors and orthographic misspellings reached significance for their percentage of errors within each linguistic category. More morphological errors occurred in English writing samples overall and in the narrative genre. More orthographic misspellings occurred in Spanish writing samples overall and in the expository genre. The most frequent linguistic feature error across languages came from orthographic features (i.e. word boundaries, capitalization of proper nouns, silent letter, and borrowing). The most frequent linguistic feature errors in Spanish orthograpy were ambiguous letters, syllable synthesis, and issues with vowels, voicing, and consonant use. The most frequent linguistic feature errors in English orthography were consonant doubling and unstressed vowels. These English orthographic errors would be expected of students relying on Spanish phonological knowledge to identify spelling patterns. Tables1-4 from the study are provided in the appendix for specific examples of the patterns.
o Limitations for this study include limited sample size, very specific elicitation of the writing samples, inability to control for student selection of familiar words, inherent variability in the dynamic process of spelling, and the interrelatedness of dependent variables creating an ipsative context. Strengths for this study are found in the very strong p-values that demonstrated patterns beyond transfer effects, supporting the triple word form theory. Findings also mirror previous research on monolingual English and monolingual Spanish speaker writing patterns. This preliminary work highlights the importance of explicitly teaching multiple knowledge sources that impact bilingual spelling patterns (i.e. phonology, orthography, and morphology) and honoring the student’s translanguaging choices within a meaningfully motivated context.
3. Defining identities through multiliteracies: EL teens narrate their immigration experiences as graphic stories (Danzak, 2011).
o This article describes a multiliteracies framework for explicit language and literacy instruction whereby narratives are developed through the exploration of identity, thus creating a meaningful and motivating context for developing academic language and literacy domains for emerging English-speaking adolescents.
o Participants included 32 emerging English speakers in grades 6-8, Spanish was their native language, most identified of Mexican heritage, duration of time living in the United States and levels of English proficiency were variable. Additionally, none of the participants were diagnosed with speech, language, or cognitive impairments.
o Within each component of a multimedia personal writing project, students were provided explicit instruction to support their creative endeavors. Form, artistic style, and genres of graphic novels were explored with graphic organizers. Daily read-alouds targeted vocabulary and extended into reflective writing exercises executed in student journals. Student journals also housed writing exercises targeting different functions of text (i.e. sequencing, describing, comparing/contrasting, explaining) and family interviews conducted by the students. Activities incorporated varying levels of support while requiring story grammar elements (e.g. supplied only a picture sequence, students authored appropriate dialogue) and the entire writing process (i.e. plan, compose, revise, edit). Final graphic novels were exhibited during a family event held at their school.
o Participants were highly motivated during this six-month multilayered writing project. The author contributed success of the project to its authentic writing experiences and celebration of multiculturalism; noting “This process as a whole afford a voice to students who are frequently silenced in the traditional monolingual English-speaking classroom. Ultimately, this narrative voice can empower Els to simultaneously express their identities and advance confidently in their language and literacy abilities.”
4. Finding Diego: A bilingual student integrates school, language, and identity (Danzak & Wilkinson, 2017).
o This mixed-methods case study uses qualitative and quantitative data to support culturally responsive practices in academic settings, specifically for middle school professionals working with emerging English speakers.
o Recommendations include a collaborative approach (i.e. colleagues and students, amongst colleagues, and amongst students) and an integrated schooling experience where language diversity is celebrated. Additionally, this article supports explicitly teaching literacy strategies that provide emerging English speakers with opportunities to explore and apply literacy strategies then self-reflect.
o This article provides qualitative evidence for the length of time and support required to develop an emerging English speakers’ academic language and literacy domains.
o Limitations include psychometric considerations typically found with longitudinal case studies. The male participant in this study self-identified as Mexican American and was interviewed as well as tested in both languages during grade six and ten.
References
Bahr, R. H., Silliman, E. R., Danzak, R. L., & Wilkinson, L. C. (2015). Bilingual spelling patterns in middle school: It is more than transfer. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 18(1), pp. 73-91. doi: 10.1080/13670050.2013.878304.
Danzak, R. L. (2011). Defining identities through multiliteracies: EL teens narrate their immigration experiences as graphic stories. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy, 55(3), pp.187-196. doi: 10.1002/JAAL/00024.
Danzak, R. L. & Wilkinson, L. C. (2017). Finding Diego: A bilingual student integrates school, language, and identity. Journal of Latinos and Education, 16(1), pp. 51-64. doi: 10.1080/15348431.2016.1179188.
Kiernan, D. & Bear, D. (2018). What spelling tells us about the orthographic development and word study instruction with emergent bilingual secondary students. Reading Psychology, 39, pp. 227-252. doi: 10.1080/02702711.2017.1415241.